BHIMBETKA ROCK PAINTINGS

It is located south of Bhopal in Vidhyan ranges of Madhya Pradesh.

The rock shelters have more than 500 rock paintings. It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003.

The oldest paintings are estimated to be 30,000 years old and have survived due to its location deep inside the caves.

There is marked continuity in occupancy of the caves from 100,000 BC to 1000 AD with many paintings being painted on top of another.

The paintings at Bhimbetka belong to Upper Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Chalcolithic, early historic and medieval period. However, most of the paintings belong to the Mesolithic age.

The paintings generally portray every-day life of pre-historic men often in stick-like human figures. Various animals like elephant, bison, deer, peacock and snake are depicted. The paintings also show hunting scenes and war scenes with men carrying weapons like bows, arrows, spears, shields and swords. Some paintings also have simple geometric designs and symbols. The other themes of the paintings are dancing, playing music, animal fighting, honey collection, etc.

Social life is well-depicted with presence of children playing, women making food, community dancing, etc. Various colours like red ochre, purple, brown, white, yellow and green are used. Colours were obtained from natural resources, for example, Haematite ores were used for red colour.

Sun Temples in India

Sun has been revered since Vedic age with many hymns written for the celestial body. It is worshipped as Aditya or Surya. There are many rituals in practice for worshipping the deity. Many temples have also been constructed with Sun as the chief deity. Sun temples are even found in Japan, Egypt, China, etc. Some of the Rajput clans, namely “Suryavanshi”, worship Sun and claim themselves to be the descendants of the deity. Some of the major temples in India are: 

1. Modhera Sun Temple, Gujarat.-  It was built in the 11th century

2. Konark Sun temple, Odisha. -  It was made by Narasimhadeva I, the Eastern Ganga king in 13th century. It is in a shape of “Rath”(Chariot) with mandapa on a raised platform.

The intentional-damage theory is supported by Mughal era records that mention the Muslim invader Kalapahad attacking and destroying Jagannath Puri and the Konark temple.

3. Martand Sun Temple, Anantnag, Kashmir 

Built in 8th century, the temple is believed to be completed by king Lalitadatiya Muktapida of Karakota dynasty. It was an example of Kashmiri architectural skill. It was destroyed by Islamic ruler Sikandar Butshikan in 15th century and is now in ruins.

4. Brahmanya Dev Temple, Unao (Madhya Pradesh)

5. Suryanaar Kovil, Kumbakonam (Tamil Nadu) was built in 11th century in Dravidian style. It also has shrines of eight celestial bodies, together called ‘Navagraha’. It has beautiful fivelayered Gopuram.

6.Suryanarayana Swamy temple, Arasavalli (Andhra Pradesh). It is said to be made by a Kalinga king in 7th century. The idol is made of granite and holds a lotus.

7.Dakshinaarka Temple, Gaya (Bihar) is said to be built by King Prataparuda of Warangal in 13th century AD. The deity is made in granite and the idol wears Persian attire like waist girdle, boots and a jacket. It has a Surya Kund (water reservoir) nearby.

8.Navalakha Temple, Ghumli (Gujarat) was made in 11th century. It is built in Solanki and Maru-Gurjara style. It faces east and is built on a large platform.

9. Surya Pahar Temple, Goalpara (Assam)

10. Katarmal Sun temple complex, Almora (Uttarakhand)

FAMOUS UNIVERSITIES OF ANCIENT INDIA

Odantapuri: It is located in Bihar and was made under the patronage of Pala dynasty KiNg Gopala I. It was a Buddhist mahavihara. It was destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji.

Odantapuri

Vikramshila: It is located in present-day Bhagalpur district of Bihar. It was established by King Dharampala of Pala dynasty, primarily as a Buddhist learning centre. The scholars were invited by kings outside India to spread Buddhist teachings. The Vajrayana sect flourished here and Tantric teachings were taught. It was destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji. 

Vikramshila

Other subjects like logic, Vedas, astronomy, urban development, law, grammar, philosophy, etc were also taught. 

Jaggadala: A centre of learning for the Vajrayana sect of Buddhism, in Bengal. Many scholars took shelter here after Nalanda and Vikramshila declined. It was probably established by King Ramapala of Pala dynasty. Śakyaśrībhadra, a Kashmiri scholar who was the last abbot of Nalanda Mahavihara and instrumental in transmitting Buddhism to Tibet, is said to have fled to Tibet in 1204 from Jagaddala when Muslim incursions seemed imminent. Historian Sukumar Dutt tentatively placed the final destruction of Jagaddala to 1207; in any case, it seems to have been the last mahavihara to be overrun.

Jaggadala

Valabhi: It was situated in Saurashtra, Gujarat. It was an important centre of learning for the Hinayana Buddhism. Various disciplines like administration and statecraft, laws, philosophy etc were taught here. It was visited by the Chinese scholar, Hseun Tsang. It was supported by the grants of rulers of Maitraka Dynasty of Gujarat. In 775 CE, the patron kings succumbed to an attack by the Arabs.

Valabhi 

Nalanda: The most renowned university of South Asia. It is not clear as to who established it; it was in existence during Gupta period. It gained prominence under Harshavardhana’s reign and Pala kings. All three Buddhist doctrines were taught here, however, it was a major site for Mahayana Buddhist teachings. It was destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji.

Nalanda

Subjects like Vedas, fine arts, grammar, philosophy, logic, medicine, etc were also taught here. It had eight separate compounds and even had dormitories for students. It attracted scholars from Central Asia, South-East Asia and other parts of the world. The teachings in the university deeply influenced Tibetan Buddhism. Famous scholars of Nalanda are Nagarjuna (Madhyamika Shunyavad) and Aryabhatta the astronomer. 

Hsuan Tsang spent two years at the university. Another Chinese scholar I-Tsing, spent ten years at Nalanda in late 7th century.

Takshashila: It was located in modern-day Pakistan. It is estimated to exist around 5th century BC. It is believed that Chanakya composed the Arthashastra at this place. Both Buddhist and Hindu theologies were taught here. Subjects like Political Science, Hunting, medicine, law, military tactics were taught here. Noted teachers and students from Takshashila include Chanakya, Charaka, Panini, Jivaka, Prasenajit, etc. Destruction of Taxila is unclear as studies have shown not clear verified. It is said nomadic Huns did that. 

Takshila

Kancheepuram: It was a centre of learning for Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism from 1st century AD and achieved great name under the rule of Pallavas. Since 1865, it came under colonial rule. 

Manyakheta: now called Malkhed (Karnataka). It rose to prominence under the Rashtrakuta rule. Scholars of Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism studied here. It has a ‘matha’ of Dvaita school of thought.

Malkhed fort

Pushpagiri Vihara and Lalitagiri (Odisha): It was established by Kalinga kings around 3rd century AD near the Udayagiri hills. It was mainly a Buddhist learning centre.

Lalitagiri Odisha 

Sharada Peeth: It is located in present-day Pakistan-occupied Kashmir. It was an important place for the Sanskrit scholars and many important texts were written here. It also has a Sharda Devi temple. It is believed by Kashmiri Pandits to be the abode of Shiva

Sharada Peeth

In 1947, the Kashmiri saint Swami Nand Lal Ji moved some of the stone idols to Tikker in Kupwara. Some of those were subsequently moved to Devibal in Baramulla. The temple fell into disuse following the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948, which split the princely state of Kashmir into the Pakistani-occupied territory of Azad Kashmir, and the Indian territory of Jammu and Kashmir. 

Nagarjunakonda: It is situated 160 km from Amaravathi in Andhra Pradesh and it was a major Buddhist centre with scholars from Sri Lanka, China, etc coming for higher-education. It had many Viharas, Stupas, etc. It was named after Nagarjuna, a south Indian scholar of Mahayana Buddhism.

Nagarjunakonda

this image is for you which will tell you how bigger thoughts were off people who made it. 

Built by King Dharma Pāla Deva (770-800 AD), second king of the Pāla Dynasty, in the late 8th century AD, the monastery follows a layout perfectly adapted to its religious function.

The vast monastery at Paharpur was only possible because of the support of the wealthy Pala Dynasty that for 400 years ruled Bengal

Dravidian Style of Temple Architecture

Under the patronage of the Chola rulers, hundreds of temples were built in South India. It was a continuation of the previous Pallava architecture, with some variations. This is what came to be known as the Dravidian style of temple architecture. The features of the Dravidian style or Chola style are: 

Unlike the Nagara temples, the Dravidian temples were surrounded by high boundary walls.

The front wall had a high entrance gateway known as the gopuram.

The temple premise was laid out in the panchayatan style with a principal temple and four subsidiary shrines.

In the Dravidian style, the spire is in the form of a stepped pyramid that rises up linearly rather than curved. It is known as vimana.

The crowning element is shaped in the form of an octagon and is known as shikhara. It is similar to the kalash of the Nagara temple, but not spherical.

There is only one vimana in the Dravidian architecture on top of the main temple. The subsidiary shrines do not have vimanas, unlike in Nagara architecture.

The assembly hall was connected with the garbhagriha by a vestibular tunnel known as antarala.

The entrance of the garbhagriha had sculptures of Dwaarpal, mithun and yakshas.

The presence of a water tank inside the temple enclosure was a unique feature of the Dravidian style.

Example:Brihadeswara temple at Tanjore (built by Raja Raja I in 1011 A.D.), Gangaikondacholapuram temple (built by Rajendra I to commemorate his victory in the Gangetic delta), etc.

Chola Sculpture

An important feature of the Chola temples was the importance placed on the decoration through sculptures. An important piece of Chola sculpture was the sculpture of Nataraja in the Tandava dance posture. Though the earliest known Nataraja sculpture, which has been excavated at Ravana phadi cave at Aihole, was made during the early Chalukya rule, the sculpture reached its peak under the Cholas.

ARCHITECTURE AT MAHABALIPURAM

The ancient port city of Mamallapuram under Pallava dynasty in Tamil Nadu flourished with a number of marvellous architecture. This seventh century Pallava sites have been declared as UNESCO

World Heritage Site in 1984 by the name “Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram”. 

Ratha temples or Pancha Ratha: Also known as Pandava Rathas, they are the earliest rock-cut temples in India, comprising of Dharmaraja Ratha, Bhima Ratha, Arjuna Ratha, Nakula and Sahadeva Ratha, and Draupadi Ratha, dated around 7th century AD. Dharmaraja Ratha is the largest structure among the five.

Rock-cut caves: which include Varaha Cave Temple, Krishna Cave Temple, Panchapandava Cave Temple, and the Mahishasuramardini Mandapa (Bas-relief of Goddess Durga killing Mahishasura).

Open Air Rock Reliefs: which include Descent of the Ganges which is also known as Arjuna’s Penance or Bhagiratha’s Penance carved on two huge boulders. It narrates the story of the descent of River Ganga on earth from heaven by the efforts of Bhagiratha.

Shore Temple complex: which includes which has two small and one large temple enclosed within a two tier compound wall studded with images of Nandi, the vahana of Shiva. The temple is predominantly dedicated to Lord Shiva with a sculpture of Anantashayana Vishnu in one of the three temples within the complex.

Temple Architecture in South India -

Temple architecture in South India began under the Pallava ruler Mahendravarman. The temples developed during the Pallava dynasty reflected the stylistic taste of the individual rulers and can be classified into four stages chronologically.

Mahendra Group 

This was the first stage of Pallava temple architecture. The temples built under Mahendravarman were

basically rock-cut temples. Under him, the temples were known as mandapas, unlike the Nagara style in

which the mandapas meant only the assembly hall.

Narsimha Group 

This represented the second stage of the development of temple architecture in South India. The rock-cut 

temples were decorated with intricate sculptures. Under Narasimhavarman, the mandapas were now divided

into separate rathas. The biggest one was called the Dharmaraja Ratha while the smallest one was called

the Draupadi Ratha. The design of a temple in the Dravidian style of architecture is a successor of the

Dharmaraja Ratha.

Rajsimha Group 

Rajsimhavarman led the third stage of temple development. Under him, development of real

structural temples were started in the place of rock-cut temples.

Example: Shore temple at Mahabalipuram, Kailashnath temple at Kanchipuram, etc.

Nandivarman group

This was the fourth stage of temple development during the Pallava dynasty. The temples built under

him were smaller in size. The features were almost similar to the Dravidian style of temple architecture.

After the decline of Pallava dynasty, temple architecture acquired a new style under the Chola

kingdom, known as the Dravidian style of temple. architecture. This marked a new era in the

development of temples in Southern India. In the later periods, three other styles – Vesara style, Nayaka

style and Vijaynagar style – also emerged in this region. 

Styles of Temple Architecture

Styles of Temple Architectures in India

The basic form of the Hindu temple comprises the following:

Sanctum Sanctorum: Also known as Garbhagriha (literally womb-house) is a small room, generally

cubicle, which houses the principal deity of the temple.

Mandapa: It is the entrance to the temple. It may be a portico or a hall and is generally designed to

house a large number of worshippers. 

Shikhara: It is a mountain like spire. The shapes varied from pyramidal to curvilinear.

Vahana: It is the mount or vehicle of the main deity and was placed just before the sanctum sanctorum.

However, under the patronage of the local rulers, different styles of architecture developed in the different regions of India.

Gupta Age - Architecture

During the Gupta period, architectural development of the caves remained constant. However, the use of mural paintings on the walls of the caves became an added feature. Some of the finest examples of mural paintings can be found in the caves of Ajanta and Ellora.

Ajanta is a series of rock-cut caves in the Sahyadri ranges on Waghora river near Aurangabad in

Maharashtra. There are a total of 29 caves of which 25 were used as Viharas or residential caves while 4 were used as Chaitya or prayer halls. The caves were developed in the period between 200 B.C. to 650 A.D.

The Ajanta caves were inscribed by the Buddhist monks, under the patronage of the Vakataka kings – Harishena being a prominent one.

The figures in these caves were done using fresco painting and demonstrate considerable naturalism. The colours were obtained from local vegetation and minerals. The outlines of the paintings were done in red colour and then the inside was painted. One of the striking features is the absence of blue colour in the paintings. Cave No. 16 is one of the most elegant specimens of cave architecture.

The paintings are generally themed around Buddhism – the life of Buddha and Jataka stories. Of the 29 caves, 5 were developed during the Hinayana phase while the remaining 24 were developed during the Mahayana phase of Buddhism. Reference of the Ajanta caves can be found in the travel accounts of Chinese Buddhist travellers Fa Hien and Hieun Tsang.

Ellora Caves

Ellora caves are another important site of cave architecture. It’s located nearly 100 km away from Ajanta caves in the Sahyadri ranges of Maharashtra. It is a group of 34 caves – 17 Brahmanical, 12 Buddhist and 5 Jain. These set of caves were developed during the period between 5th and 11th centuries A.D. (newer as compared to Ajanta Caves) by various guilds from Vidarbha, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Hence, the caves reflect a natural diversity in terms of theme and architectural styles.

Bagh Caves

Located on the bank of the Bagh river in Madhya Pradesh, it is a group of 9 Buddhist caves developed

around 6th Century A.D., It is architecturally very similar to the Ajanta caves.

Junagadh Caves

These are Buddhist caves located in Junagadh district of Gujarat. There are not actually caves here, but three different sites can be found. (1) Khapra Kodiya, (2) Baba Pyare, (3) Uparkot. A unique feature of the Junagadh caves is the presence of a 30-50 ft high citadel known as “Upar Kot” in front of the prayer hall.

Nasik Caves

It is a group of 24 Buddhist caves, also known as “Pandav Leni”. They were developed during the 1st century A.D. and belong to the Hinayana period.

However, later, the influence of Mahayana sect can also be found in these caves. Under Hinayana sect, his presence is indicated through the use of motifs and symbols like the throne and footprints. And later, the idols of Buddha were also carved inside these caves representing the influence of Mahayana Buddhism. The site also depicts an excellent system of water management indicated through the presence of water tanks carved out of solid rocks.

Mandapeshwar Caves

Located in Borivali near Mumbai and also known as Montperir caves, it was developed in late gupta period as a Brahmanical cave. However, it was later converted into a Christian cave. The remains of the

site include sculptures of Natraja, Sada shiva and ardhanarishwara. The church and its graveyard are

situated above the cave precincts.

Udayagiri caves

(not to be confused with Udayagiri-Khandagiri Caves in Odisha) It is located in Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh. Created in the early 5th century AD under the patronage of Chandragupta II, it is famous for having numerous sculptures on the hill walls. The sculpture of Varaha or Boar incarnation of the Vishnu is notable. The caves have one of the earliest Hindu sculptures. It also has caves dedicated to Shiva, Narasimha (half-lion, half-man), Narayana (resting Vishnu) and Skanda.

Stupas

The Gupta age saw a decline in the development of stupas. However, Dhamek stupa at Sarnath near Varanasi is a fine example of stupa developed during this period.